Data Analysis

Data Analysis

I have conducted a questionnaire for use as a primary data collection method in order to answer the task question. It consisted of a number of strategically formed questions in order to both obtain accurate information about the subject question, and the about the sample themselves (to determine whether their answers were likely to be accurate and well informed or less valid). I made sure to outline that the sample had no obligation to participate, that their data would be kept confidential and that their anonymity would be maintained throughout; as can be seen in the prior information section on the questionnaire below.

 


About the sample

The entirety of the sample I collected data from were between 15 and 18 and were all students. However, this simple factor could limit the accuracy of any conclusion drawn because the sample is not fully educated and are arguably unable to make valid judgement. As can be seen from the relevant table, the majority (90.5%) of the sample described themselves as ‘White - British’. This may also be another limiting factor as the sample may not be in the same social groups as those from other ethnicities. Therefore, it is possible that they have not experienced language influence from those of other ethnic backgrounds. 

Data Analysis

One of the questions included in the questionnaire was as follows; ‘What do you understand to be the definition of the word ethnicity?’. I used this question to gain an idea of the sample’s understanding of the word ethnicity but also to gauge how accurate their answers to other questions are likely to be. I put the sample’s answers into a pie chart to allow easy visual comparison between the different categories. 

The Oxford English Dictionary definition of ethnicity is as follows; ’the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition.’ It is clear to see, from the pie chart on the following page, that the majority of people thought ethnicity was linked to a person’s culture or cultural upbringing which is accurate. However, 23% of people described ethnicity as being linked to a person’s race or racial background. The word ethnicity itself was  created and used first in the late 50’s/early 60’s (the time when the fight for black equality was at its peak) purely because of the link between the words race and racism. Therefore, using the word race to describe ethnicity is incorrect.

Some thought it was to do with skin colour and geographical origins which is a fair and legitimate assumption to make as they are both linked to culture and in themselves. A few of the sample also thought it was to do with social background and religion which is not entirely true but is clear where the links have come from as they are both also linked to culture.

 Another of the questions was about ‘standard english’. The question was as follows; To what degree would you concur with the following statement; ‘The Queen’s English is the correct English and all other derivations of this are improper and incorrect’. 

Overall there is no clear correlation in opinion about whether the Queen’s English is correct or not. It can be seen however (from the graph on the left) that the majority of the sample said they felt in moderate agreement with the statement.

I then asked the sample about whether they felt that immigration has had an effect on English language. I found that a total of 48% agreed, 24% either felt unsure or thought there was little effect and 28% said that they thought there was no effect. These were unsurprising figures to me because the majority of people would have encountered new urban slang for example as a result of immigration. However people normally take one of two views towards this. Either they do not care about the language use as it has no effect on them or they have had very little contact with people that use this type of language. 

I then directly asked the sample whether they thought that Afro-Caribbean dialect has had an influence on the English language as a whole. I found that 38% said that they disagreed, 29% agreed and 33% said that they were either unsure or were felt there was little effect. These results show that there is a very inconclusive view towards the effects of Afro-Caribbean dialect on English language. Thus the only logical conclusion that can be drawn would be that there is no real conclusive view regarding the Afro-Caribbean dialect influence on English language. 

In order to gauge how much of the sample were open to new developments in language I asked the following question; ‘Do you think that the use of modern language such as emojis is enhancing or destroying language’. I found that 14% thought that it was having little/no effect, another 14% thought it was having both positive and negative effects, 24% thought it was having a positive effect and that 48% thought that it was having a negative effect. These mixed responses could be interpreted as being that 48% of the sample were ‘closed minded’ to having alterations to English language. Consequently, their answers to other questions may have been biased.

Finally, I asked the sample to describe what they would consider to be ‘Standard English’. This too brought about quite mixed results. The graph below shows my findings. The first conclusion to be drawn is that 24% of the sample were not able to answer the question as they did not know. This is an interesting figure because if people do not know what standard english is then surely they are unable to give accurate answers to the rest of the questions. Also, the majority of the sample thought that standard English is to do with (clear and coherent) pronunciation or accent. This is also incorrect as language and dialect must be viewed as separate concepts. Pronunciation and accent is relevant to dialect not language and so is not relevant to the question.

By Myles Chamberlain 

Language at Work

Language in the Workplace

Eakins and Eakins 1976:
They observed 7 university meetings taking note of the length of each utterance. They found that the men in the meetings usually had the longest utterances at between 10 and 17 seconds whereas the women's utterances were between 3 and 10 seconds.

Edelsky 1981:
In series of meetings of a University department faculty committee, Edelsky conducted a method to test his theory that the floor (the power and dominance) in a face to face conversation differs depending on the types of meetings held. The more linear and hierarchical segments of the meetings showed that men had more utterances than women and spoke more in different areas like in debates, in a joking manor, in directing and in soliciting responses. In the un-led discussions (the 'free for all' segment) it was shown that the floor was owned by men and women equally, arguably women had more power than the men.

Herring 1992:
A discussion was carried out over email about a linguistics 'distribution list'. The participants were from the 'Linguistic Society of America' where over 50% of the members are female. In spite of this, only 5 women took part compared to the 30 men.  The men's responses were also (on average) twice as long as the women's. Women also tended to use a more personal voice (ie: I did this, my opinion is etc) whereas the men used dominating language (ie: It is obvious that).

Herbert and Straight 1989:
By recording conversations between 2 people, Herbert and Straight concluded that compliments are usually given from people of a higher rank in the work force than by that of a lower. This contributes to the theory of maxims as the higher rank persons would want to be polite and make people of a lower rank feel comfortable

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Prior Information

It is important that you understand the following before continuing:

This questionnaire has been designed for use as a method to collect primary research for an

English Language A-Level Course. You have no obligation to answer any of the questions in this

questionnaire and you are fully within your rights to withdraw your answers at any time. If you

choose to give information however, the information you provide will be used for no other

purpose, kept strictly confidential and will be deleted after its appropriate use. You will remain

anonymous throughout the entirety of this process.

Instructions

• Answer open questions fully in the boxes provided and with necessary detail.

• Answer multiple choice questions by drawing a clear line through your chosen box.

• Please complete the following questions to the best of your ability and knowledge.

Questions

1) What is your occupation?

2) What do you understand to be the definition of the word ‘ethnicity’?

3) What ethnicity would you describe yourself as?

☐ Arab

☐ Asian or Asian British – Indian

☐ Asian or Asian British – Pakistani

☐ Asian or Asian British – Bangladeshi

☐ Asian or Asian British – any other Asian background

☐ Black or Black British – Caribbean

☐ Black or Black British – African

☐ Black or Black British – any other Black background

☐ Chinese

☐ Mixed – White and Black Caribbean

☐ Mixed – White and Black African

☐ Mixed – White and Asian

☐ Mixed – Any other mixed background

☐ White – British

☐ White – Irish

☐ White – any other White background

☐ Any other ethnic origin group

4) What age bracket would you put yourself in?

☐ 15-16 ☐ 31-40

☐ 17-18 ☐ 41-50

☐ 19-20 ☐ 51-60

☐ 21-30 ☐ 61+

5) To what degree would you concur with the following statement; ‘The Queen’s English is the

correct English and all other derivations of this are improper and incorrect’.

☐ Whole-heartedly

☐ Strongly

☐ Greatly

☐ Moderately

☐ Somewhat

☐ Slightly

☐ Not at all

6) Do you think that immigration has had an effect on the English language? If so, please

outline who/where has had the greatest effect and to what extent this effect can be seen.

7) From your own personal experience do you feel that the Afro-Caribbean Dialect has had

much of an influence on the English language as a whole? Please answer in detail.

8) Do you think that the use of modern language features (such as emojis) is enhancing or

destroying language?

9) Describe in the greatest possible detail what you would consider to be ‘Standard English’

Dialect Analysis

Language Analysis

Essex

Traits of the variation

The ‘Essex dialect’ is a non-standard variation of the English language. To someone who speaks what would be considered ‘standard English’ the majority of the language would make sense however there are some elements that would not. Some of these variances used in the ‘Essex dialect’ on ‘standard english’ are as follows:

• Use of elision (eg: ‘d’ya’ replacing ‘do you’)
• Heavy stress on the last syllable of words (even if they are monosyllabic)
• Much greater use of fillers (eg: ’shut up’, ‘like’, ‘d’ya know what I mean’ etc)
• Use of words with a changed meaning such as ‘sick’(adjective - amazing/good) and ‘beef’ (abstract verb - being annoyed with someone)
• Use of new words such as ‘reem’(adjective - cool) and ‘sort’(adjective - good looking)

These different traits have come from a variety of different sources; chief amongst which would be the language used in the east end of London. The fact that Essex and London are neighbouring counties, has been a major contributing factor in the creation of the Essex accent as it has taken many of the traits of the language used in the east end. These traits have also lead lead to a stereotype; people interpret the sound of the ‘Essex accent’ to suggest that the person is uneducated. Some of the traits listed above like the greater use of fillers (suggesting the person is unsure of what they are saying) contribute to this assumption. However, the main contributing factor would be the TV show ‘The Only Way Is Essex’ or ‘TOWIE’ that has helped to affirm this stereotype more so than the dialect itself.

Why does the variation exist?

The main reason why people in Essex use this type of language is because it makes it easier and quicker to convey a point. For example when talking to a small group of people; if using standard english you might say ‘you guys’ or ‘you lot’ whereas someone from Essex might say ‘yous’/‘youse’. This is because there is no plural of the word ‘you’ so using the way in which most words are made plural (by adding an ’s’) it allows them to more accurately describe the group of people. These kinds of logical alterations to words in order to convey a point more clearly does not only occur in Essex. For example in Southern America it would be common to use ‘y’all’ to refer to more than one person and in the ‘Pittsburgh’ area (near Ohio) ’you-uns’ would be used for the same purpose.

Geordie

Research found at http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/sounds/case-studies/geordie/

Overview:
The Geordie dialect is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the speech of the whole of the North East of England. Strictly speaking, however, Geordie should only refer to the speech of the city of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and the surrounding urban area of Tyneside. Locals insist there are significant differences between Geordie and several other local dialects, such as Pitmatic and Makkem. The Geordie accent sounds extremely identical to that of the welsh accent however Geordies speak with a harsh tone.

Traits:

• Harsh
• northern
• rough

Aspects:

• Geordies have some of their own words to replace standard English ones. for example the word "crack" replaces "banter", and the word "aye" replaces the word "yes.
• Many phonemes are also used differently in their accent as the usual 'up' (u as a consonant) replaces the 'a' in "lad" essentially turning the word into lud.
• The Geordie dialect is often spoken by more low register citizens with constant exhale and length(their words are more dragged out). This makes the accent seem rough as it seems lazy. 

Received Pronunciation

Research found at http://dialectblog.com/british-accents/ 

Overview:
Received Pronunciation is the closest to a "standard accent" that has ever existed in the UK. Although it originally derives from London English, it is Non-regional. You've probably heard this accent in countless examples like in Jane Austin movie interpretations or from influential elders like Judi Dench. It emerged from the 18th and the 19th century aristocracy, and has remained the "gold standard" ever since.

Traits:

• Lengthened words
• Posh
• differentiation in pitch (it's easier to reach a high pitch from a low pitch)

Aspects:

• Non-rhoticity, meaning the 'r' at the ends of words isn't pronounced. (Mother is said Muh-thuh).
• Trap-bath split, meaning that certain 'a' words like 'bath' 'can't' and 'dance' are pronounced with the broad-a in father.
• The vowels within received pronunciation seem to be more conservative than in other areas of England as their vowels have shifted.

Language in Instant Messaging (WhatsApp)

Language in Instant Messaging

Language is used differently in instant messaging depending upon who the recipient of the message is to be. It is dependent, not only on the number of recipients, but also what relation they have to the sender. We would therefore, naturally assume that if the messages are between friends for example that the language used would be of a much lower register than between work colleagues. We have collected some screenshots from a person’s phone to different recipients. Screenshot 1 is to a ‘group chat’ comprised of the sender’s friends whereas screenshot 2 is to the sender’s father.    

Comparison Points

• The language used in screenshot 1 contains lots of short sentences; usually someone making a point followed by another person’s reaction. This pairing effect called ‘adjacency pairs’ can be observed throughout the chat where multiple utterances are often linked. 
• The style in screenshot two is quite the opposite; large, full sentences with less use of abbreviation, no use of emojis and proper use of punctuation. The use of more saturated sentences (in this case used to describe something) allows the sender to convey their point in greater detail.
• The language is also of a much lower register in screenshot 1. This can be seen from the use of ‘taboo’ language, swearing, the use of the symbol ‘@‘ instead of the word ‘at’ as well as the use of emojis. 
• There is the occasional use of emojis in the second chat however they are only used to convey an emotion that would not otherwise be possible
• The second chat uses a more traditional exclamation mark to create emphasis on the senders point whereas if this was the first chat, an emoji might have been used
• Another noticeable difference between the two is the frequency at which each utterance is posted. This is arguably because of the number of people in the chat, however it could also be because each person does not want to feel left out of the conversation. As a result, there are many examples of elision throughout the group chat. There is no such problem in screenshot 2 as there is a very relaxed nature to the chat.
• There are many examples of elision within screenshot 1. This is used to convey a point quicker as, in this case, some feel a pressure to reply quickly.

The language features, use of symbols etc used in the previous two screenshots can be observed throughout the chat (see other examples of screenshots below). Therefore, a logical conclusion to draw would be that there are specific language conventions used when speaking to specific people of groups of people.

   

Other examples:

Constraints and Affordances

Screenshot one is discussing a TV programme (however the programme does not interest the sender and so he is not active in the conversation). This could be considered a constraint of the platform as entire conversations can be carried out between the recipients that do not concern or interest the sender. However this particular platform enables you to send multiple videos, images, emojis, voice recordings, as well as text. As a result, WhatsApp can be regarded as a ‘multi-modal’ platform. This means that there are many different ways in which people can express their views, opinions, points etc. Such affordances can be used to convey a particular emotion (especially with the plethora of emojis available) or tone that would not otherwise be possible if just using text.

Screenshot 2 is talking about an image which had been sent to the recipient. The fact that you are able to send images to people on the platform and then discuss said image (as oppose to having to verbally describe what you can see) is also a major benefit of the platform. Another affordance of the platform is that it can be used across multiple devices (unlike other similar platforms such as iMessage). There are constraints that come with this however such as the fact that some emojis can’t be viewed on particular devices (see other examples below).

One interesting factor that only plays a part in this type of instant messaging platform, is that you are able to see when people are typing. This simple feature can have a quite influencing effect upon the person or people replying. For example, in a group chat scenario, some people naturally feel a pressure to respond quickly. This is because it would be natural to assume that the lack of response might be interpreted as being rude (the equivalent of ignoring someone in a real dialogue) and a quick reply is the only way to avoid this. This hypothesis would be supported if observing Erving Goffman’s ‘Face Theory’. It suggests that people have both positive face needs (feeling valued and appreciated) and negative face needs (feeling independent and not being imposed on). Any remark that may threaten a persons face (such as derogatory marks, exclusion from groups, questioning peoples opinions etc) can be classed as a ‘face threatening act’. Therefore, people try to respond quickly to avoid its absence as being interpreted as a face threatening act.

Transcript Analysis

This transcript involves three different speakers. It is clear to see that speaker 2 is the most dominant for an number of reasons. The first reason would simply be because within the context, they have familial dominance. Another reason would be that the person that is asking most of the questions is speaker 2. Therefore it is likely that speaker 2 is of greater authority than speaker 1. Also because when speakers 1 and 2 meet speaker 3, it is speaker 2 who does the talking. It can finally be presumed from the simple fact that they have the greatest number of utterances (21 as oppose to speaker 1’s 17 and speaker 3’s 7). The text contains a number of different adjacency pairs. These are however voiced by each of the speakers; not just by speaker 2. This may suggest that although speaker 2 is dominant in the situation, they are also being courteous in allowing the other speakers to make contributions (thus suggesting that the speakers are being cautious not to offend others and that the speakers do not feel pressured to be actively seeking the power). Such a hypothesis would be further backed up by the fact that the register of the speakers is mostly quite formal. Also because there is a very low amount of elision within the transcript. This level of formality would naturally be associated with a higher class so it might also be presumed that the speakers are of a higher class. There are some interruptions within the text, however they are usually when a speaker either realises something or is being apologetic, therefore they are within the context and not completely irrelevant or unnecessary (usually the speaker trying to be polite).

Revision Material

Definitions

Grammar - The study of the system and structure of language

Syntax - Sentence Structure

Morphology - Words

Discourse structure - The way in which texts are organised and sequenced

Pragmatics - the context of language

Word class - A group of words that fulfil the same kind of role and function in speech and writing

Lexical word classes -  Have the most members and are open to new membership

Grammatical/closed word classes - Provide connections and cohesion between other words

Noun Phrase - groups of words entered around a noun that acts as the ‘head’ of the phrase

Nouns - naming words

pronouns - takes the place of a noun

concrete nouns - things you can touch

abstract nouns - concepts

Verbs - Either auxiliary or main. Main tell you the action auxiliary give extra info on the main verb.

Auxiliary can be subcategorised between the following:

Primary Auxiliary - Do, have and be

Modal auxiliary - Can, could, will, would, shall, should, must, may and might (have the ability to make a text more polite or more formal or emphasise something’s importance or add formality

Adjectives - describing words (describes an attribute of a noun)

Adverbs - words that describe how verbs are carried out (eg: quickly)

Iconic signs - a direct picture of the thing it represents (often simplified eg: male/female toilet sign)

Symbolic sign - Draw on association and are defined by cultural convention (eg: school logo)

Graphology - The features that contribute to the appearance of a text (eg: fonts, colours etc)

Theorists

Erving Goffman – ‘In Face theory’

Face theory – theory in which an individual has both positive and negative face needs.

Positive face needs – associated with feeling valued and appreciated

Negative face needs – desire to feel independent and not to be imposed on

Interactions can therefore be face threatening acts (FTA’s) which is why people are naturally mindful of other people’s face needs during conversation.

Paul Grice – The 4 Conversational Maxims

1. Quantity – The use of an appropriate amount of detail
2. Quality – Speaking the truth and not knowingly misleading
3. Relevance – Keeping what is being discussed relevant to the topic
4. Manner – Avoiding vagueness and ambiguity

These are also known as the co-operative principals

William Labov - The 6 Narrative categories

The six narrative categories summarise the six elements that a narrator will (generally) conform to when conveying a story

1. Abstract - The indication that the speaker wants a listener’s attention
2. Orientation - The who, what, when, where, why is conveyed 
3. Complicating Action - Main body providing a range of narrative detail
4. Resolution - Final events to give narrative closure
5. Evaluation - adds to the basic story in highlighting the narrator’s opinion / commanding the listener’s attention at important moments
6. Coda - A sign that the narrative is complete 

Types of evaluation:

External - added by the narrator at the time of recounting (not usually part of the series of events) An example would be “now i'm getting to the good part”

Internal - occur at the same time as those in the complicating action

Intensifying - contributes via gestures, repetition or dramatic sounds

Explicative - provides reasons for narrative events

Ferdinand de Saussure - Semiotics

Semiotics - how signs are interpreted and understood (usually have a deeper meaning or connotation). Examples include logos, pictures etc.

The two types of sign are as follows:

1. Iconic signs - A direct image of the thing it represents (often simplified) such as the male/female toilet sign
2. Symbolic Sign - Draw on association and are often defined by social convention. An example would be the school logo

Noun Phrases Analysis

Alton Towers victim learns to walk again (BBC) 

Alton Towers - Pre modifier

victim - Header

learns to walk again - Post Modifier

This first noun phrase describes how a victim (the header and subject of the article) learns to walk again. The post modifier ‘learns to walk again enlightens the reader to what has happened to the subject. The pre modifier ‘Alton Towers’ also gives information about what the subject has been victimised by. 

The Bengali film that influenced world cinema (BBC)

The Bengali - Pre modifier

film - Header

that - Determiner 

influenced world cinema - Post modifier

The title of this article contains a lot of information about the subject and header (the film). The pre modifier notifies the reader that the film originated in Bengal (which intrigues the reader because Bengal would not normally be associated with film as, for example, Hollywood would). The determiner connects the post modifier to the header and helps the reader to determine what significance the film has.

Battle of Britain historic flypast due (BBC)

Battle of Britain historic - Header

flypast - Header

due - Post Modifier

The pre modifier in this noun phrase gives extra information about the header in that it is for the Battle of Britain and that it is historic. The header is also described as being scheduled to happen soon by the post modifier. 

On the front line in Damascus (BBC)

On- Pre modifier

the front line - Header

in - Determiner

Damascus - Post modifier

The pre modifier ‘on’ gives the reader extra information about the article (in the fact that it is from the perspective of someone on the front line). The determiner ‘in’ is used to make the link between the subject and the subject’s location.  

International Skype outage likened to plague (Popular Science)

International Skype- Pre modifier

outage - Header

likened to plague - Post modifier

This article uses two different words to describe the head word. Each word gives different information about the header. The post modifier also gives information (in this case an opinion) about the header. 

New look for birthday boy Prince Harry (Hello!)

New - Pre modifier

Look - Header

for - Determiner

birthday boy Prince Harry- Post Modifier

The header is accompanied by the pre modifier ‘new’ which gives information about the header. The determiner connects the fact that the ‘look’ belongs to ‘Prince Harry’ who is also the ‘birthday boy’. The post modifier gives two different pieces of information to the reader about the subject. 

‘Cuddling up’ Charlotte and George in first official pictures (Hello!)

‘Cuddling up’ - Pre modifier

Charlotte and George - Header

in - determiner

first official pictures - Post modifier

In this noun phrase, three words make up the header; two nouns and a connective. They are complimented by the pre modifier which shows the action that the subject has taken. The post modifier is joined by the determiner ‘in’ to show what relevance the header has to the ‘first official pictures’

M25 road rage killer a step closer to freedom (The Telegraph)

M25 road rage - Pre modifier

killer - Header

a - Determiner

step closer to freedom - Post Modifier

The pre modifier contains two different elements of information. They are about where the incident took place and the nature of the incident. The post modifier is adjoined to the header with the determiner ‘a’ in order to show how the killer is linked to being a ‘step closer to freedom’.

One point I have noticed is that the BBC utilise more fact based headlines to convey an accurate, straight to the point summary of the article to the reader before they have read the article (as you would expect the header to do).

However the less formal websites such as ‘Hello!’ and ‘The Telegraph’ use a surplus of nouns and verbs to give an exaggerated description of the basic subject of the article; prioritising drawing the reader in, over informing the reader of the article’s subject.